Wednesday, July 31, 2019

Lord of the Flies Narrative Poem Essay

I, the island, all alone in the sea, Have been invaded by humanity. A plane crashed while escaping war, And left several schoolboys upon my shore. In my jungle, a scar their tube did make, And simultaneously, my peace it did take. Two boys blew into a shell from my beach. All came to whom the sound did reach. They decided that they needed a chief, And Ralph was chosen, to Jack’s grief. The boys thought that survival would be fun, But were they ready to get the work done? Their happiness didn’t last and fears did rise. A snake-beast was spotted by a littlun’s eyes. They decided to build a signal fire upon my mountain head, But out of control, the fire did spread. Missing is the littlun who saw the beast, Yet the boys don’t seem to care that he’s likely deceased! Pig hunting became Jack’s obsession. The boys abandoned building huts in their transgression. Only Ralph and Simon remained to work, While in my bathing pool the rest did lurk. Simon is the only one who respects my beauty. Why is rescue not everyone’s top priority? The littluns are barely being taken care of, The older boys neglect to show them love. Jack and the boys hunted pigs and let the fire die. Ralph got angry, there was no signal as a ship passed by. The boys caught a pig so they chant and dance, But spirits were dampened at the loss of a rescue chance. The boys’ work ethics, Ralph did doubt: Defecating everywhere, poor shelter, fire gone out! Thanks to Jack, the beast continued to bring fear, The littluns claimed to have seen it near. The voices of Piggy and Simon are kept quiet, And Jack lead the others into a frantic riot. Upon my mountain a dead parachutists did land, The twins spotted it and ran down to the sand. They claimed to have spotted a beast on my hill, Now all the boys want to do is to find it and kill. They searched a cave but the creature was not there, In fact there was no beast anywhere! Ralph is losing control of the bestial boys, All this talk of beasts is just useless noise. The real evil is inside the human mind, But to this fact these boys appear to be blind. Due to these children, my land has been hewn, I hope that they leave me alone again soon.

Tuesday, July 30, 2019

Bret Harte Essay

The United States has some of the best literature that has ever been written. American literature is very well refined and unique from other countries. In the writing world, American literature has not even been around that long. The past 337 years that America has been a country is relatively short compared to the thousands of years that literature has existed. The many great American writers are what make American literature able to overcome its short lifespan and be one of the greatest countries for literature in the world. From Washington Irving to Mark Twain, American authors are responsible for American literature’s current amazing state. One certain author played an especially important role in shaping a specific genre in American literature. Bret Harte is the man responsible for making the Western genre of literature popular. His stories are captivating. Bret Harte was able to contribute to the rise of American literature by shaping the Western genre so that other authors may adapt to his new style of writing, and by writing some of the most memorable stories of all time, such as â€Å"The Outcasts of Poker Flat. † Bret Harte was born in Albany, New York, on August 25, 1836. He was raised as one of his family’s four children. Harte was very ill from ages six to ten, which gave him free time for reading (Franks 829). This time for reading had a great influence on Harte, giving him blocks for him to build on in his writing career. He was especially affected by the writings of British author Charles Dickens (Franks 829). His family was so poor, that they were unable to afford for him to finish school (Franks 829). When his father died in 1845, Harte and his family moved to Brooklyn. When his mother became engaged again, he and his family moved to Oakland, where his mother was married. His family was still very poor though. These times of hardship were also very influential on his writing. He was able to understand difficult struggles, thus making the problems that his characters face in his stories more interesting. He connected with his characters in many ways when they would experience times of hardship. His time in Oakland is what made him such a great â€Å"Western† writer. It made writing about the Wild West natural for him. Harte then moved to Union, California, but was run out of town after publishing a newspaper story about local white men slaughtering Indians. Harte married Anna Griswold, and they had four children together. They lived together in San Francisco, where Harte wrote most of his popular stories and became quite famous. During the height of his popularity, he signed a contract with The Atlantic Monthly for $10,000 for 12 stories a year, the most money then offered to a U. S. writer (â€Å"Hutchinson’s†). His fame led to his stories becoming even more popular, but it would also go to his head. The main genre used in most of Harte’s stories is the â€Å"Western†. According to The New Encyclopedia Britannica, the â€Å"Western† is defined as â€Å"an original genre of novels and short stories, motion pictures, and television and radio shows that are set in the American West, usually in the period from the 1850s to the end of the nineteenth century,† (598). An average Western story was about a cowboy fighting Indians or a sheriff catching a bad guy, but Harte made his special. Of those stories, one of the most popular is â€Å"The Outcasts of Poker Flat. † This story is about a group of people who are kicked out of their town for being â€Å"bad† people. They set up camp together and attempted to work with each other to stay alive. The group experiences many setbacks, including a member betraying them, a long snowstorm, and a shortage of food. While the reader watches the story unfold, he or she starts to see that these people really are not that bad, and perhaps they did not deserve this punishment. This story is very different from the traditional Western stories. In â€Å"The Outcasts of Poker Flat,† Harte is able to make criminals seem like good guys. Usually a â€Å"Western† is about a perfect main character, who stops the bad guys; but in this story, the main characters are some of the worst people in the town. His is also different from traditional â€Å"Westerns† in the way that it does not have any guns. When most people think of a â€Å"Western,† they think of guns, but Harte was able to change that. He wrote a story with no guns at all, and it is able to focus more on the characters and their feelings, rather than action and violence. Harte goes far beyond the ordinary way of writing with this story. In the opening paragraph of â€Å"The Outcasts of Poker Flat,† Harte writes: As Mr. John Oakhurst, gambler, stepped into the main street of Poker Flat on the morning of the twenty-third of November, 1850, he was conscious of a change in its moral atmosphere since the preceding night. Two or three men, conversing earnestly together, ceased as he approached, and exchanged significant glances. There was a Sabbath lull in the air, which, in a settlement unused to Sabbath influences, looked ominous. (â€Å"The Outcasts of Poker Flat†) As is visible in this paragraph, Harte was a very descriptive writer. He was able to paint a picture in the reader’s mind and effectively set his story’s mood. The characters that Harte used in this story were very significant. As said by Abby H. P. Werlock, his characters included â€Å"the stoic gambler, the soft-hearted prostitute, the unthinking drunk, and the vigilante committee driven by personal interests and blinded by the passion of a moment† (Werlcok). All of these characters that Harte used are still seen in many Western stories today. In fact, they are quite typical in modern Western stories, but Harte was the one to come up with them. Shaping the Western genre and writing some of the most memorable stories of all time, such as â€Å"The Outcasts of Poker Flat,† was how Bret Harte was able to contribute to the rise of American literature. After Harte’s era, â€Å"Westerns† became much more popular. He forever changed American literature to be much more Western themed. Harte will always be remembered as one of the best authors of all time, and more specifically, the man who changed the way Western stories are written.

Monday, July 29, 2019

INCA EMPIRE Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

INCA EMPIRE - Essay Example This made Pizarro have a better and more experienced knowledge to draw and to set out from Panama in 1530 to conquer the Incans. This also made the Spanish victorious in the war (Christine, 2004). Seasoned conquistadors who joined the fight on the side of the Spaniards made Pizarro and his troops outwit the Incans. The seasoned conquistadors were Hernando De Soto, who had earlier explored Florida and his brother. This expedition conquered and recruited allies as they entered deeper in the Inca Empire. Spaniards introduced in the war while the Incas were already in war, and this was a great advantage to Pizarro and his expedition. It slowed communication among the Incas and made the Spaniards recruit more allies who conquered mercilessly towards the central government (Christine, 2004). The capture of Atahualpa Emperor was also a significant boost for the Spaniards in conquering the Incas as it increased confusion among the Incas, which reduced the response of the Incas as they attacked the Incan empire. The capture of the Emperor was because of the Spaniards using more advanced firearms, cannons and horses as compared to the Incas who used spears and slings that were of no match with the Spaniards weapons (Christine, 2004). Other disasters also affected the Incas and made them unable to fight effectively with the Spaniards. Some of the disasters were inferior technology and diseases as it was claimed that diseases alone killed 90% of the Incas. The Spaniards momentum and beliefs made them conquer the Incas, as they believed it was their mandate to dismantle and change the Incas and anyone they came across to Christianity (Christine, 2004). The approach of Pizarro and his allies to the Incan emperor was a surprise, and that made them attach the Incas fast before the Incas could realize and attack back. Sending Indians first to sweep

Sunday, July 28, 2019

The Power of the President Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

The Power of the President - Assignment Example It changed the way people interacted with their leader and continues to do so to this day. 2. Following the devastation of the Second World War, much of the global economy lay in total ruin. Old orders, ways of thinking, and systems had vanished into rubble and smoke. Many people lived lives of total despair. However, there were a number of brave men and women who decided to look at this crisis as an opportunity and to fashion something new out of the mess. The most important change to make involved the world economic system. And so the Bretton Woods regime was founded on July 1944, in Bretton Woods, New Hampshire, United States, by the delegations of the 44 Allied nations with the intent of creating a new financial and economic order, due to the shift of power occurred as a result of the Second World War. The Bretton Woods regime was a result of the events which affected the world economy and political system, starting from the great Depression to the rise of Nationalist dictatorships and finally the Second World War; its declared objective was to ensure prosperity to al l nations, so conflict would never occur again. This foreign policy achievement gave the President of the United States a great deal of power over the world

Saturday, July 27, 2019

Identification, Collection and Preservation of Trace Evidences Research Paper

Identification, Collection and Preservation of Trace Evidences - Research Paper Example Most fiber piece contains similar physical nature with majority of such pieces found in crime scene are either made from polyester or nylon. The class characteristics includes weave pattern, dyes present, cordages, fabric impressions and tears (Brown, 2001). Thus, fiber in a crime scene is hard to identify without using microscopic and a combination of chemical and instrumental tests. Fibers are normally found in fabric abrasions with some trapped within torn material. In scenes involving hit-and-run motor vehicles fibers occur on scratched sections, and in burglary incidences they are normally found in tattered screens, clothing and broken glass (Brown, 2001). Collection is based on length of the fibers, such that if the fibers are undersized or few in numbers, the investigator is required to wrap the region or the entire product comprising the fibers in a paper (DuPre, 2013). However, if the fibers are large or in greater numbers, the investigator should place them in a bindle that is then placed in a sealed and marked coin envelope (Dutelle, 2011). The fibers should be picked up on tape if the lab in that jurisdiction permits it but with defined requirements. All clothing of belonging to an individual from which the fibers are found to have come from should also be picked for comparison purposes. Every garment should be placed on uncontaminated sheet of paper before separately rolling it up after marking the exhibit. Loose fibers should not be positioned directly into mailing wrapper since they can be lost (Buckles, 2010). Firearms Class characteristics found in firearms largely arises from the impact of bullets fired from the firearm, s uch as number and width of grooves, course of twist, or bullet diameter, in addition to the caliber and rifling patterns inside the barrel (DuPre, 2013). The cartridges and casings also have class characteristics like breech marks, impressions created by firing pin, in addition to extractor and ejector marks (Buckles, 2010). Firearms are easy to identify when there is transfer of the individual distinctiveness, chiefly striated marks left from the firearm to bullet and cartridge ammunition component (Brown, 2001). In terms of collection, the firearm should not be picked up through placing any other object in the barrel terminal. Unfired cartridges should not be left inside the magazine if the magazine is separated from the gun even as the rifles and shotguns must not be dismantled (Buckles, 2010). The investigator should not clean the firearm bore, chamber, or cylinder until they are submitted or even try to fire the firearm before it is evaluated in the Lab. Moreover, firearm havin g a cartridge inside the chamber must never be transported by any method since the firearm is not cocked or on-safety (Brown, 2001). The investigator should also record serial number, model, the firearm make, in addition to the weapon caliber (Hess & Orthmann, 2009). Marking should be done using an inconspicuous method that does not detract from its value, since copy serial numbers are sometimes on different firearms of a similar make and general-type. Nonetheless, model numbers and the firearm patent numbers should

WorldCom Assignment to be Reviewd Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3500 words

WorldCom to be Reviewd - Assignment Example The causes and results of the fines that were imposed by the SEC (Securities and Exchange Commission), a staggering $750,000,000. In addition to that, understand how could the company announce accounting irregularities amounting to $11,000,000,000 and also their relevant financial reporting that caused such irregularities. To completely paint the picture of the bankruptcy, there is a need to cover practical and academic aspects of organizational structure, the staff (individuals, teams and groups), and the culture that predominated WorldCom and made it possible for the business entity to commit such fraud and deceit. In addition to that above, I want to share some light into the leadership of WorldCom and its role in the eventual demise of it. Was it all a matter of leadership, good or bad, or perhaps that are some underlying reasons that caused the bankruptcy. There are a number of factors that need to be studied in relation to WorldCom. For instance, what is the role of the external auditors of WorldCom in the bankruptcy and fraud. Were they a part of it or they simply ignored wrongdoings and kept things running as they were without intervention. The above discussion has been done based on the secondary data available. However, effort has been put to discuss the same in light of the related theories in academia. Adding to the above discussion, a detailed analysis would be carried out to show the effect of the crisis on its various stakeholders. In Human Resource Management, human beings are assumed as the most significant asset within an organization. The discussion has been provided to provide an insight as how this crisis affected its most significant assets. At the end a conclusion has been inferred from the entire analysis and discussion. The object of this research paper is to come to understand how this business and accounting fraud took place and how the government and other concerned parties missed on this for

Friday, July 26, 2019

Research proposal-Anxiety levels of a new graduate family nurse Essay

Research proposal-Anxiety levels of a new graduate family nurse practitioners (FNP's) - Essay Example Results shall have implications on the means to facilitate the learning process and make it as effective, efficient, and as less stressful as possible. Numerous empirical studies have noted that nursing as a profession is intense and stressful. In fact, it has been noted that the likelihood of occupational stress-related burnout is specifically high in this field (BÃ ©gat, Ellefsen, & Severinsson, 2005). In fact, nurses’ psychosocial work environment, including their experience of anxiety and stress level, does strongly influence their sense of well-being (BÃ ©gat, Ellefsen, & Severinsson, 2005). The current study asserts that newly graduate nurses, particularly those in family practice settings, similarly experience stressful situations. Such stress may be discussed in light of the framework proposed by Benner (1982) taking off from the work begun by Dreyfus & Dreyfus (1980), which depicts the learning process undergone in becoming an expert in the profession (Benner, 1982). These stages, beginning from novice and incrementally progressing to expertise level, have been specially adapted to the learning stages that a nurse goes through (Davidson, 1992). The current study aims to determine the anxiety levels of new graduate family nurse practitioners in family practice settings. Apart from establishing these levels, these shall also be compared across time, through 3, 6, 9, and 12 months. In doing so, the research may impart data on how to address these anxieties, and to effectively expedite the learning process. Menzies (1960) investigation of nursing services in a general hospital is popular, and depicts numerous ways of dealing with the intense and complicated anxieties arising from the job. Nurses are in intensive and frequent contact with people who are physically ill or injured, often gravely. The recovery of patients is uncertain and will not always be

Thursday, July 25, 2019

Investigate plagiarism at the undergraduate level Essay

Investigate plagiarism at the undergraduate level - Essay Example There is an uptick in the incidences of plagiarism. Therefore, there is a high need of action to eradicate this trend. An essential part of fighting against plagiarism is to teach students the skills to legally and ethically use the sources, so they do not unintentionally step into the plagiarism territory. One of the major excuses for escaping the accusation of plagiarism is that it was unintentional. Regardless if a student intentionally or unintentionally copied someone elses work, either way, it falls under the category of plagiarized work. When researchers refer to someone elses work it means that it was someone elses idea so merrily changing the words does not absolve students from this academic misconduct. It is vital to learn the background of plagiarism to comprehend the exact problem. Textual ownership refers to the thoughts and phrasings that are someone elses property and using them without attributing them back to the owner would be equivalent to committing an academic crime known as plagiarism. Many young students find it difficult to use information that belongs to others into their work (Diane, 2013). Paraphrasing, quoting, or any other form of incorporations such as through diagrams, figures and flowcharts, are some of the means through which students commit this crime intentionally and unintentionally. The studies on plagiarism and cheating have mostly been conducted through student questionnaire, which reveals that there is a strong moral base for students about friendship and good learning. It means that some punishable behavior might be regarded as justifiable, and some officially approved behavior is deemed dubious (Ashworth, Bannister, Thorne & Students, 2006). Studies also suggest that students are often unclear as to what constitutes as plagiarism and what the correct forms of paraphrasing are (Roig, 1997). The

Wednesday, July 24, 2019

CAPTCHA Thesis Proposal Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

CAPTCHA - Thesis Proposal Example This thesis will also give a proposal on the future directions of creating reliable CAPTCHAS. The main of this study is to determine the major visual visula CAPTCHAS being used and how they are created. The anti-segmentation and and anti-recognition techniques that are currently being used to make CAPTCHAS very hard for automated computer attacks and bots to segment the CAPTCHAS. This is intended to eventually help in creation of reliable CAPTCHAS. There is increased insecurity by many web users in maintaining their privacy due to many hackers being able to acquire users personal information details. This study is to impact and increase users confidence in the use of CAPTCHAS as a security tool and to help visual CAPTCHA designers to formulate the best algorithms that will be used in creation of reliable anti-recognition and anti-segmentation techniques. This will eventually make user information and use of CAPTCHAS very secure against automated computer bots. We will perform a deep analysis of the different anti-segmentation techniques that are used to prevent separation of CAPTCHAS characters in order to make a sense from them like collapsing, distortion and noise. We will also study some anti-recognition techniques like collapsing, distortion, waving and using multiple-fonts and sizes. We will be conducting a comparative research based on existing research in this area and concerns over information security. We will collect data and statistics and represent the finding in forms of tables and charts. `This study will be done through analysis and comparisons of previously researches done on the increase of security of CAPTCHAS. This will involve acquiring sample data and statistics relating to anti-segmentation, anti-recognition success rates of various visual CAPTCHAS. Comparing some algorithms used in the design of CAPTCHAS. The data in this study will be mostly acquired from previous researches done on the

Tuesday, July 23, 2019

National Government Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

National Government - Essay Example The Constitution as the supreme law of the land empowers the government to the legal rights to control the operation of the businesses. There has been a rise in government regulation with time. Still, the business community has considerate freedom of action. Understanding the US Government business relations requires acquaintance with the characteristics of the economy itself. The United States has a well-diversified economy with an industrial base. It is a capitalist type of economy with bantam public enterprises and lots of privately owned corporations. The success of the economy is due to control rather than the ownership by the government. These corporations are far-reaching in search for markets, operating in openness, and judicial processes take a center stage in conflict resolution. Great respect is however owed to the existing legal and economic structures (Porter, 3) The government regulation is licensing and permission. Enterprises are required to be registered to start operations. The US also has a large number of corporations who, as a prerequisite, require a charter to commence operations. The same is required for the partnerships and limited liability companies. The policy makers, therefore, monitor the operation of these enterprises. The US economy experienced a total economic change in last three decades. In the 1974 Summit Conference on Inflation, thirty prominent economists made a report to the then President Ford together with the congressmen. The report gave strong recommendations to enhance the economy. These included restructuring pricing and doing away with obsolete legislations that resulted in inefficiency. These policies helped develop and strengthen the banking, transportation, telecommunications and insurance sectors (Porter, 10). In 1789, George Washingtons farewell speech had one important message concerning US foreign policy, "avoid entangling alliances". To some, these words were wise,

Monday, July 22, 2019

Success is about hard work and not luck Essay Example for Free

Success is about hard work and not luck Essay This is the case of 74 year old male patient heavy smoker (2 packs per day) presenting to the floor of MGH for the above chief complaints. History goes back to 15 days when the patient noticed 3 successive episodes of blood with urination at morning, one hour apart, painless ,of large amount, complete stream ,also the patient recorded that he saw 2 pieces of clots after voiding at noon of same day .then the color of urine was back to normal as the patient said. there’s associated nocturia, urgency, and drippling of one month duration .also weight loss of 15 kg within 3Â  months.NO burning sensation , no pain ,no dysuria, no fever ,no flank pain,no back pain, no nausea no vomiting, no constipation ,no other system involved symptoms. The patient was admitted to MGH for further investigations. PMH : DM 25 years ago HTN 10 years ago CAD 10 years ago Medications: concor 5 mg one at morning aspicot 100 mg OD Lipitor 20 mg OD glucophage 750 mg PO BID amaryl 4 mg PO daily tritase 10 mg PO daily PSH: CABG, hemorroidectomy , left herniectomy, right hip fixation by plates and screws(duration unknown by the patient). Family history: Mother(DM,HTN,CAD) Allergy : No known drug or food allergy. Physical examination: General examination: The patient is conscious, cooperative, oriented, pale, sitting, thin , cachectic ,having foley catheter.(seen 2 days postop) Vital Signs: RR: 24/min Pulse: 64/min Temp.: 37.4 C BP: 160/90 mmhg. HEENT : pallor, no cyanosis, no jaundice, no ecchymosis, no mouth ulcers , bad oral hygiene Decreased visual acuity (presbiopia) ,arcus senilis ,diplopia No tinnitus, no vertigo (Dix hallpike test not done) Chest ex:good bilateral air entry. No rub, no crepitations, no wheezes. cardiac ex: Regular S1S2 with no murmurs. Abdomen ex: 1. Inspection: non distended symmetrical abdomen No visible pulsation or peristalsis No localized bulge Male pattern of hair distribution Umbilicus is slightly shifted downwards, no discharge No full flanks Normal subcostal angle No spider angiomas No visible veins No scars, or scaling red colored urine(in the foley’s bag) but the urine is clear due to irrigation of bladder 2.Auscultation: audible bowel sounds, no renal artery bruit 3.Palpation: soft non tender abdomen, warm, no palpable masses, Lower border of liver is not felt, upper border at 5th ICS along the MCL Spleen is not palpable Both kidneys are not palpable , no CVA tenderness. no suprapubic pain. 4.Percussion:tympanitic urinary bladder 5.DRE: not done 6.Genitalia examination: not done Lower limbs :positive pedal pulses no lower limb edema, no redness no bruises no muscular atrophy. Differential diagnosis: 1- bladder cancer 2- BPH 3- Prostatitis 4- Urolithiasis 5- Prostate cancer incidental or advanced. Investigations : Labs : CBCD, BUN, Creatinine ,electrolytes, CRP, HBA1C,FBS,LDL,HDL,triglyceride PT ,PTT ,PSA, urine analysis and culture. Imaging : CT urography(uroscan),cystoscope and urine cytology. What was done at the hospital : Item Minumum Maximum Value pre op Hemoglobin Urine analysis : normal Ultrasound of pelvis : no post residue voiding ,small thick wall, prostate is enlarged measuring 39 grams Management : Control the glucose level preop TURBT TURP to relieve obstruction with biopsy of prostate Send the samples to pathology and wait the results. If the tumor did not invade the detrusor muscle it’s superficial and managed according to grading and depth (Ta low grade TUPBT only ,T1 low grade or Ta high grade TURBT + intravesicle injection of chemotherapy , T1 high grade TUPBT and relook after 1 month) if invade the detrusor muscle : T2 = metastatic workup CT abdomen ,chest , and bone scan.then remove the bladder and do urinary divergence by neobladder or ileostomy(conduit).

General Trends of English Politics Before The Viking Invasions Essay Example for Free

General Trends of English Politics Before The Viking Invasions Essay Do you detect any general trend or trends in the pattern of English politics before the Viking invasions? Although there were sporadic Viking attacks on the coasts of the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms from 793 onwards, the Viking invasions, when large forces started to appear for sustained campaigns, should probably be seen as beginning in 865, when a heathen army encamped on Thanet.1 Before this time, we see a trend in English politics of increasingly extensive overlordship of some kings over others. There is debate about the extent of these overlordships, but it seems reasonable to suggest that certain kings at certain times were able to dominate other kingdoms, and also that there was some increase in the area a king might aspire to control. However, there is more argument about what this trend might mean, and particularly whether it can be seen as part of an inexorable progression towards the unification of the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms in the ninth and tenth centuries. I shall argue that the pattern tended to a limit, and that there is no reason to see unification as its inevitable result, for three main reasons. Firstly, we see another trend that, as kingdoms grew both in size and strength, it became harder to convert overlordship into amalgamation, although this is seen in some cases. Secondly, I shall contend that the overlordship seen was based upon opportunism, with little or no institutional continuity between different overlords. Thirdly, the nature of Anglo-Saxon politics was such that no kingdom before the Viking invasions could sustain its ascendancy sufficiently for the trends to represent long-term moves towards unification. The best way to explain the eventual unification is not as a result of long-term trends, but as West Saxon opportunism at a time when the other kingdoms were weak, buttressed by a latent sense of united ecclesiastical identity, which the Viking threat brought to the surface. The main trend that we see in the pre-Viking Anglo-Saxon kingdoms is the growth of overlordship, whereby one political unit, while retaining a degree of separate identity, and quite possibly its own ruler, was dominated by another. Bede uses a variety of terms to refer to different rulers, including rex, princeps and subregulus. The impression that one gets from this is a complex patchwork of kings, with some subordinate to others: Dumville and Campbell both justifiably point out that the terminological variety suggests that there was no universal pattern, but a web of dependent relationships; this is similar to the situation in Ireland at the same time. It is likely that such relationships go back to the beginning of the Anglo-Saxon period; Kirby points out that this would hardly be surprising, since Tacitus describes similar hierarchies in Germany. However, we do see overlordship being exercised over increasingly large areas: the traditional starting point here is Bedes list of sev en kings who ruled over all the southern kingdoms. 2 The evidence does generally support the view that these kings exercised considerable power over large parts of England. Keynes asserts that it is inconceivable that Aelle of Sussex and Ceawlin of Wessex, the first two rulers, could have wide ranging power. We know little about them, but the Chronicle entries do suggest that they were significant and had successes, particularly against the Britons.3 Furthermore, Myres studies of the distribution of pottery fragments suggest that both rulers exercised some authority in the Midlands and East Anglia, since pottery finds match those in their native kingdoms. The evidence is not sufficient to suggest that they had control as far north as the Humber, but we would be unwise to dismiss the idea that these kings had some form of overlordship over much of southern England. Furthermore, Keynes is sceptical about Aethelbert of Kents power, suggesting that Bedes reiteration of the claim that he was king of all the land south of the Humber4 shows that this was dubious, requiring repetition to convince readers. However, the papal appeal that Aethelbert should spread the Word to his subjects suggests that he had considerable power, as Higham argues, even if he was not literally king of the English, the style accorded to him by the appeal.5 It is less easy to rebut Keynes diminution of Raedwald of East Anglia, since we know very little about him. If we could be more certain that the person buried at Sutton Hoo is indeed Raedwald (as many historians posit), we could assume that he was a very rich and powerful king; however, Keynes does not give us any positive reason to doubt Bedes claim regarding Raedwalds wide overlordship. Although Keynes asserts that Bede makes inflated claims about the scope of the influence of Edwin, Oswald and Oswiu of Northumbria, there is no strong evidence to support this: Bedes account is internally consistent, giving examples of these kings intervening in the Mevanian Islands (Angelsey and Man),6 Wessex,7 East Anglia,8 and Mercia9 at various times. These interventions could be entirely military (as is implied for the islands) or could involve peaceful shows of power, such as Oswalds participation in the baptism of Cynigils of Wessex. It seems reasonable to conclude that these kings did exert influence across large parts of Southumbria and it appears that the areas they could control increased; Keynes attempt to deny extensive overlordship in this period to strengthen his (already strong) case against a formal Bretwaldic institution is not particularly convincing. Furthermore, overlordship did not end with Oswiu: indeed, the later Mercian kings were possibly even more successful in securing practical overlordship across much of Southumbria. Bede acknowledges that the southern kingdoms were subject to Aethelbald at the time he was writing,10 supporting Dumvilles conclusion that the omission of the Mercian kings from the earlier list was prompted by concern to curtail the digression from Aethelberts death, rather than Northumbrian bias. There is evidence of Mercian hegemony in the south before Aethelbald: Bede explicitly states that the South Saxons were subject to Wulfhere11 and Eddius refers to Wulfheres ability to draw forces from all the southern kingdoms.12 Furthermore, charters give us evidence that Mercian kings were overlords in Southumbria: in the Ismere Diploma, Aethelbald is styled king not only of the Mercians but also of all provinces which are called by the general name South English';13 Offa could confirm a land grant by an ealdorman of the South Saxons;14 Offa was apparently the most beloved lord of the Hwicce;15 Offa was in a position to revoke a grant of land by the King Egbert of Kent;16 Wiglaf could grant land in Worcestershire;17 and Brihtwulf could do the same in Berkshire.18 This charter evidence is very important: it demonstrates that the kings of Mercia in this period claimed authority over other southern kingdoms and also implies that this authority could have practical manifestations, such as the right to grant land or at least to confirm grants made by their underkings. The extent of their authority seems to decline after Offa, but the principle of overlordship, in a more limited sense, continued. One of the most debated possible indicators of widespread Mercian overlordship is the document known as the Tribal Hidage. The difficulties and ambiguities of this text are such that the charter evidence cited is a far stronger sign of extensive Mercian overlordship, but there is a significant possibility that the Tribal Hidage is a Mercian tribute list, estimating the tribute that the Mercian kings hoped to collect from southern kingdoms. Highams bold self-confidence in dismissing a Mercian origin is unwise, in that such levels of certainty are wholly inappropriate in this context: all we can do is suggest hypotheses, while accepting that other hypotheses may be valid. As Featherstone and Sawyer point out, the methodical arrangement, with the kingdoms being arranged in an approximately clockwise order around Mercia, hints at a Mercian origin. The inclusion of a figure for Mercia, which Higham sees as evidence that the document is a Northumbrian tribute list, might be an assessment of internal food renders, Featherstone suggests. The preservation and copying of the Tribal Hidage imply that there was some practical purpose in estimating the hidation of Southumbria: it is still possible to accept tentatively the claims of Davies and Vierck that the Tribal Hidage is an indicator of widespread Mercian overlordship. There is some agreement that Egbert of Wessex, whom the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle appends to Bedes list of overlords and styles Bretwalda (Manuscript A ruler of Britain) or Brytenwalda (other Manuscripts wide ruler), was overlord of extensive territories. Keynes accepts the Chronicles claim that Egbert conquered the kingdom of the Mercians, and everything south of the Humber;19 this statement must cast doubt upon Stentons assertion that the extent of Egberts overlordship was not comparable to Offas. Nevertheless, Keynes claim that Egbert was the first, not the eighth, wide ruler is dubious: the evidence very strongly suggests that overlordship had been an aspect of Anglo-Saxon politics for centuries. However, the territories being brought under a single overlord were tending to increase in scale: the archaeological record suggests that the early great kings, like Aelle and Ceawlin, could aspire to rule much of the land south of the Humber, but nothing like as much as the later Mercians and Egbert. This trend was not relentless: in the period between Offa and Egbert, there is little evidence of comprehensive overlordship on the scale of either of these rulers. Although we observe this trend towards the formation of more extensive overlordships, we should not conclude, as Stenton and John do, that this trend could be extrapolated to encompass the unification of the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms. In the first place, it seems to have been increasingly difficult to convert overlordship into the actual amalgamation of kingdoms. Initially, with small kingdoms, it may not have been unduly difficult to effect such assimilation: Yorke points out that East Kent seems to have consumed West Kent sometime during the sixth century. Indeed, much amalgamation probably occurred in the sixth century, before the various kingdoms that we see emerged. Furthermore, it was often possible for a larger kingdom to digest a smaller one: this is seen in the cases of Deira (eventually subsumed into Bernicia after 651) and the Hwicce (gradually divested of independence by Mercia in the eighth century). However, integration was not always smooth: despite being united under Aethelfrith and Edwin, Deira was ruled separately under Oswine from 642 until 651. In the latter part of the pre-Viking period, it would have been very difficult for one of the greater kingdoms to consume another permanently: this is suggested by the fact that, despite their struggles and periods of subjection to one another, Northumbria, East Anglia, Mercia and Wessex all survived until the Viking onslaught. An illustration of this difficulty is the case of Mercia: Oswiu of Northumbria was only able to rule Mercia directly for three years after his victory in 655; he was driven out by the Mercian ealdormen in 658. Similarly, Egberts domination of Mercia was not secure: he was recognised as king by the Mercians in 829 but Wiglaf was restored in 830. Indeed, it would seem that political union was most successful when it was pursued gently: unlike Offas aggressive attempts to dominate Kent from 764 until 785, Wessexs absorption of Kent and Sussex was done with sensitivity to the local nobles; this did, however, mean that the sense of union was perhaps not cemented, as is suggested by Aethelwulfs proposed division of Greater Wessex, with Aethelbert succeeding in the East and his other sons taking Wessex itself in turn. However, unification in the ninth and tenth centuries can be explained in that the situation after the coming of the Vikings was different, since Mercia, East Anglia and Northumbria were seriously weakened by the attacks, aiding Wessexs expansion. Moreover, the overlordship that we see was probably highly opportunistic, without institutional underpinnings. Yorke is probably right that the principal motivation for overlordship was the collection of tribute: Bede mentions tribute in connection with overlordship20 and Eddius says that Wulfheres purpose in attacking Northumbria was to gain tribute.21 Furthermore, the Mercians could presumably have conquered a tribe like the Hicca (assessed at a mere 300 hides in the Tribal Hidage), had they wished to do so; that such tribes existed as notionally independent entities suggests that, if the Tribal Hidage is a Mercian tribute list, the Mercians were content with tribute rather than political union. However, John argues that there was some kind of institutional framework and that overlordship was being gradually translated into unification. Key to this argument is the adoption of formal titles by kings: John contends that the ideal of a united Britain was a real one in kings minds, citing the use of various titles. The most famous of these is Bretwalda or, as John prefers, Brytenwalda, which appear in different versions of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle;22 I shall not become drawn into an argument about which style is the original, because the ambiguity and confusion is sufficient of itself, as Wormald argues, to cast doubt upon the existence of such an institution in reality. Clearly, whoever was copying the manuscripts was not familiar with the term, which suggests that it was a literary construct devised retrospectively to describe Egbert; its frequent application to kings like Aelle and Raedwald is therefore probably anachronistic and Kirbys vision of kings striving to become Bretwalda23 is most likely to be fanciful. John also argues that other titles imply the existence of some kind of abstract concept of overlordship separate from the individual kings who happened to be overlords. For example, he highlights that Adomnan says that Oswald was ordained by God as emperor of all of Britain24 and that Boniface refers to Aethelbald wielding the glorious sceptre of imperial rule over the English.25 This evidence, combined with the point about Bretwaldas, is a rather thin basis for a case: it is quite possible that the titles were simply being used for flattery; the fact that Boniface calls Aethelbald king of the Mercians in his letter asking Herefrith to deliver the previous communication suggests that the imperial title used in the letter to Aethelbald was unofficial.26 Moreover, Offa is also generally styled king of the Mercians,27 as is Cenwulf.28 In their charters, they tend to claim to be kings of various kingdoms, rather than stressing titles of institutional overlordship. If there was no institution of overlordship, each de facto overlordship would have to start afresh in trying to create cohesion: the trend of increasingly extensive overlordship was not therefore destined to result in the formation of England, since there was often little continuity between the different overlords. The sense of common identity that began to emerge by the later ninth century (Alfred could speak of Angelkynn and Englisc) probably had far more to do with religious unity in the face of the pagan Viking threat. As Wormald argues, the Church, rather than the so-called Bretwaldas, was the institution that provided a common reference point for the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms, by stressing that the Gens Anglorum was a chosen people, selected to receive the Word. Given that there were most probably no institutions to produce continuity in overlordship, momentum towards unification could only be maintained as long as a particular kingdom was in the ascendant; however, the nature of Anglo-Saxon politics in this period was such that success tended to be transient. We see this is Northumbria, whose hegemony collapsed very quickly after defeats at the Battle of the Trent (679) and Nechtansmere (685). Likewise, Mercian hegemony seems to have declined gradually after Offa. There was, to a significant extent, a natural instability in the pattern of politics: kings required land to grant to warriors (to secure their support), which required the conquest of land, which required more warriors; this pattern was clearly unsustainable in the longer term. The importance of giving gifts to warriors is seen in Beowulf, where Hrothgar says that he will dispense / his God-given goods to young and old;29 Bede shows that such gifts were necessary in the real world, expressing concern that excessive endowment of secularised monasteries had left Northumbria with insufficient land to grant to warriors. 30 There is evidence to suggest that warriors would desert their lord, if he ceased to provide them with treasure and land: Aldhelm expresses disapproval of those who do this in his letter to the clergy of Bishop Wilfrid.31 Probably, the importance of conquering new lands explains why the initiative shifted away from the south-east to Northumbria, Mercia and Wessex: these kingdoms could, at least for a while, conquer land from Britons, in a way that kingdoms like Kent could not. A notable feature of both Beowulf and Anglo-Saxon politics is that kingdoms tended to come to grief sooner or later; success was rarely lasting. Another source of instability was internal dynastic politics: there seem to have been frequent civil wars. This is hardly surprising given that, according to Dumville, any aetheling could claim the throne through descent in the male line from the founder of the kingdom: the multiplicity of aethelings32 would not infrequently compete for the kingship. The Historia Regum attributed to Simeon of Durham demonstrates that four different dynasties competed for the Northumbrian throne between 759 and 796, with murders, exiles and (probably forced) tonsures being common.33 Similarly, there is evidence of the threat of dynastic instability in Mercia, in that Offa decided to eliminate his son Cenwulfs potential competitors; Alcuin attributes conflict in Cenwulfs reign to this policy and says that this was not the strengthening of his kingdom, but its ruin. 34 Given that there were such internal problems, it is hardly surprising that kingdoms could lose overlordship quickly, as dynastic politics came to predominate. The importance of dynastic stability is seen in the eventual rise of Wessex: Egberts successes against Mercia came when the latter was probably engaged in dynastic wrangles; Campbell suspects that neither Ludeca (825-7) nor Wiglaf (827-40) were related to their predecessors. On the other hand, the West Saxon succession was more stable, as Dumville points out: this is seen in the succession in turn of Aethelwulfs sons, even if it did not conform entirely to Aethelwulfs intentions. However, dynastic tension was generally a feature of the pre-Viking period: this contributed to the rapid rise and fall of kingdoms, meaning that overlordship could not consolidate into unification. We do therefore see a trend towards greater overlordships in this period, though it must be noted that this trend was gradual and not entirely linear. Nevertheless, it is clear that certain kings were able to exert influence over far larger areas just before the Viking invasions than others could at the beginning of the Anglo-Saxon period. However, it would be unwise to extrapolate this trend and interpret it as some kind of progression towards the eventual unification of the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms under the West Saxons. It became harder to translate overlordship into political amalgamation as kingdoms grew, and overlordship was not itself stable, given the internal vicissitudes of kingdoms. We see that, before the later ninth and tenth centuries, no kingdom could sustain overlordship for long and, in the absence of recognised institutions of overlordship, this meant that whatever progress might conceivably have been made towards unification under one overlord was lost when his kingdoms power waned. The rise of Wessex was predicated upon factors that mostly could not have been foreseen: it was able to take advantage of the weakness of the other English kingdoms in the wake of the Viking attacks and could exploit the latent sense of religious unity, which was probably made stronger by the common, external, pagan threat. Bassetts extended metaphor of a knockout football competition, which inevitably produces a single winner, is not particularly apposite; while we might nowadays modify Kembles nineteenth century allusions (he described overlordship as a mere fluctuating superiority such as we may find in Hawaii, Tahiti or New Zealand, due to success in war and lost in turn by defeat35), his basic conclusion, that the overlordships that we see in the pre-Viking Anglo-Saxon kingdoms were not leading inexorably towards unification, still seems entirely reasonable. Bibliography Sources: Adomnan, Life of Columba, ed. and trans. R. Sharpe (1995) Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, in English Historical Documents, i, 1, ed. and trans. D. Whitelock (1955) Beowulf, trans. S. Heaney (1999) Bede, Ecclesiastical History, ed. and trans. B. Colgrave and R.A.B. Mynors (1969) Bede, Letter to Egbert, in English Historical Documents, i, 170, ed. and trans. D. Whitelock (1955) Eddius, Life of St Wilfred, in English Historical Documents, i, 154, ed. and trans. D. Whitelock (1955) Simeon of Durham, Historia Regum, in English Historical Documents, i, 3, ed. and trans. D. Whitelock (1955) Charters: in English Historical Documents, i, 54, 66-7, 76-7, 79-80, 85-7 Letters: in English Historical Documents, i, 165-6, 177-9, 191-3, 195, 197-200, 202, 204-5, 208-10, ed. and trans. D. Whitelock (1955) Secondary works: S. Bassett (ed.), The Origins of the Anglo-Saxon Kingdoms (1989) M.P. Brown and C.A. Farr (eds.), Mercia: An Anglo-Saxon Kingdom in Europe (2001) J. Campbell, Bedes Reges and Principes (Jarrow Lecture 1979), in J. Campbell, Essays in Anglo-Saxon History (1986) J. Campbell (ed.), The Anglo-Saxons (1982) J. Campbell, The Impact of the Sutton Hoo Discovery on the Study of Anglo-Saxon History, in J. Campbell, The Anglo-Saxon State (2000) W. Davies and H. Vierck, The Contexts of the Tribal Hidage: Social Aggregates and Settlement Patterns, in Frà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½hmittelalterliche Studien 8 (1974) D.N. Dumville, The Aetheling: a study in Anglo-Saxon Constitutional History, in Anglo-Saxon England 8 (1979) D.N. Dumville, The Terminology of Overkingship in Early Anglo-Saxon England, in The Anglo-Saxons from the Migration Period to the Eighth Century: An Ethnographic Perspective, ed. J. Hines (1997) N.J. Higham, An English Empire: Bede and the early Anglo-Saxon kings (1995) D. Hill, Offas Dyke: Pattern and Purpose, in Antiquaries Journal 80 (2000) E. John, Orbis Britanniae and the Anglo-Saxon Kings, in E. John, Orbis Britanniae (1966) J.M. Kemble, The Saxons in England, ed. and revised W. De G. Birch (1876) S. Keynes, Raedwald the Bretwalda, in Voyage to the Other World: the Legacy of Sutton Hoo, ed. C.B. Kendall and P.S. Wells (1992) S. Keynes, England 700-900, in The New Cambridge Medieval History II, c.700-c.900, ed. R. McKitterick (1995) D.P. Kirby, The Making of Early England (1967) D.P. Kirby, The Earliest English Kings (1991) J.N.L. Myres, Anglo-Saxon Pottery and the Settlement of England (1969) P.H. Sawyer, From Roman Britain to Norman England (1998) F.M. Stenton, The Supremacy of the Mercian Kings (1918), in F.M. Stenton, Preparatory to Anglo-Saxon England (1970) F.M. Stenton, Anglo-Saxon England (1971) A. Williams, Kingship and Government in Pre-Conquest England c.500-1066 (1999) P. Wormald, Bede, the Bretwaldas and the Origins of the Gens Anglorum, in Ideal and Reality in Frankish and Anglo-Saxon Society: Studies presented to J.M. Wallace-Hadrill, ed. P. Wormald et al. (1983) P. Wormald, The Venerable Bede and the Church of the English, The English Religious Tradition and the Genius of Anglicanism, ed. G. Rowell (1992) B. Yorke, Kings and Kingdoms of Early Anglo-Saxon England (1990) 1 Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, 865 2 Bede, Ecclesiastical History, ii, 5 3 Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, 485, 491, 568, 577, 584 4 Bede, Ecclesiastical History, i, 25; ii, 3; ii, 5 5 Bede, Ecclesiastical History, i, 32 6 Bede, Ecclesiastical History, ii, 5; ii, 9 7 Bede, Ecclesiastical History, ii, 9; iii, 7 8 Bede, Ecclesiastical History, ii, 14 9 Bede, Ecclesiastical History, ii, 16 10 Bede, Ecclesiastical History, v, 23 11 Bede, Ecclesiastical History, iii, 30 12 Eddius, Life of St Wilfred, 20 13 English Historical Documents, i, 67 14 English Historical Documents, i, 76 15 English Historical Documents, i, 77 16 English Historical Documents, i, 80 17 English Historical Documents, i, 85 18 English Historical Documents, i, 87 19 Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, 829 20 Bede, Ecclesiastical History, ii, 5; iii, 24 21 Eddius, Life of St Wilfred, 20 22 Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, 829 23 Kirby, The Making of Early England, p 54 24 Adomnan, Life of Columba, i, 1 25 English Historical Documents, i, 177 26 English Historical Documents, i, 178 27 English Historical Documents, i, 191, 198, 210 28 English Historical Documents, i, 204, 205 29 Beowulf, lines 72-3 30 Bede, Letter to Egbert 31 English Historical Documents, i, 165 32 Dumville, The aetheling: a study in Anglo-Saxon constitutional history, p 13 33 Simeon of Durham, Historia Regum, in English Historical Documents, i, 3 34 English Historical Documents, i, 202 35 Kemble, The Saxons in England, volume ii, p 17

Sunday, July 21, 2019

Dry Yeast and Hydrogen Peroxide Acid Base Catalysis

Dry Yeast and Hydrogen Peroxide Acid Base Catalysis Mateo Rodriguez Abstract   Category: Chemistry The purpose of this experiment was to figure out if either acids or bases accelerate or decelerate the chemical reaction consisting of dry yeast and hydrogen peroxide. I am trying to prove that the more acidic or the more basic the reaction is, the more accelerated the reaction will be. Enzymes are very important to the human body because they speed up chemical reactions without being a part of it. Enzymes are made up of proteins which are important biological compounds in the formation of living organisms. The addition of an acid or base to yeast makes  a certain amount of bubbles to show how acidity or basicness affects the chemical composition  taking place in the reaction with the yeast. Without the addition of an acid or a base, the reaction is harmless to our bodies. The enzyme Catalase is used in everyday life as well. The protein found in the enzyme is easily changeable with the addition of another substance Among the materials that you need to conduct this experiment are five clear containers, a washable spoon, distilled water, a measuring cup, baking soda, lemon juice, and a set of measuring spoons. The six planned concoctions are control with no acids or bases, low-acid with one teaspoon oflemonjuice, high-acid with two teaspoons of lemon juice, low-base with one teaspoon of baking soda, and high-acid with two teaspoons of baking soda. You might even want to try a combination of both the acid and the base. Next, you must add a Y4 cup of hydrogen  peroxide into the glass. Then add a 1teaspoon of dry yeast and the reaction will begin. Record  your results carefully to track this marvelous experiment. In the end, the reactions that were further away from a neutral pH performed in a more decelerated rate. Therefore, the control, low-acid, and low-base reactions performed at a more accelerated rate than the high-acid and the high-base reactions. However, the combination reaction performed at an exponentially better rate than all other reactions. Although all the mixtures performed within the same range (besides the combination), it was simply due to the reactions being at a microcosmic scale. The experiment ended up proving my initial hypothesis completely incorrect. It would probably be a wise idea to use larger amounts in order to get more appreciable results. The bubbles formed because different atoms in the hydrogen peroxide and the dry yeast collided and then bounced away to be farther away than they were in the beginning. This microscopic change appears to us humans in the form ofbubbles. The enzyme Catalase found in dry yeast, is also found in our bodies organs; primarily the liver. What Catalase does in the liver is manage the graying of our hair. The more Catalase the faster our hair will gray, and the less Catalase there is the slower our hair will gray. Since Catalase is found in our crucial organs, doctors and scientists have done experiments to try and manipulate the enzyme. Their experiments primarily consist of the yeast acting against acids and bases as I did in my project. If this experiment were to be done on a more grand scale, it would sure affect and aid us in our everyday lives. Introduction The purpose of this project is to figure out if either acids or bases accelerate or decelerate the chemical reaction consisting of dry yeast and hydrogen peroxide. Enzymes are very  important to the human body because they speed up chemical reactions without being a part of it. This catalysis isnt just found in the human body, its also in most living things on Earth. Enzymes are made up of proteins which are important biological compounds in the formation of living organisms. The addition of an acid or base to yeast makes a certain amount of bubbles to show how acidity or basicness affects the chemical composition taking place in the reaction with the yeast. If you have ever mixed baking soda and lemon juice in an attempt to fight indigestion, you will see a basic chemical reaction between the two. Without the addition of acids or bases, the yeast reaction is quite harmless to our bodies. However, since we consume acids and bases almost every day, its a great idea to enlighten your self on just how our bodies are working. The main goal of this experiment is to fmd out how well the catalase in yeast breaks down acids and bases or vice versa. Hypothesis  and  Background  Research Acids and basses are two very common terms in many scientific fields, such as chemistry. Acids are chemical substances that dissolve some types of metal and turn litmus intro a red color because of them being of a pH lower than seven. They are typically a corrosive or sour-tasting kind of liquid. Bases on the other hand, are usually of a pH higher than seven and are the opposite of acidic substances. They accept hydrogen ions instead of releasing them such as acids do. Bases will also typically turn litmus paper into a sort of blue color. There are several different types of chemical reactions and changes happening around us in our everyday lives. The most common of these reactions occurs when a raw egg turns solid. This happens because an impressive amount of heat is applied to the raw egg which forms longer and stronger chains of protein molecules inside the egg. This reaction and several others that occur in our body rely on enzymes, which are basically special types of catalysts made up of protein. Catalysts are anything that speeds up an action without being used up themselves. Thus, an acid- base catalysis is the acceleration   of a chemical reaction by the addition of an acid or a base with the acid or base itself not being consumed in the reaction. Enzymes are not only found in human bodies, they are found in all types of living things including yeast. Yeast contains the enzyme known as catalase which breaks down the chemical hydrogen peroxide (H202) into  oxygen gas and water. This would be the react ion that will inform us about the amount of  bubbles formed from the acids and bases. This reaction will also show us how much the yeast has to work to break down the hydrogen peroxide when different substances are also added onto the concoction. Proteins can be changed when a specific amount of heat is brought upon it. Since enzymes are made up of proteins, they too can be changed by heat. However, what a majority of people do not know, is that the addition of acids and bases can also affect the way that a protein is put together. Both acid-catalysis and base-catalyzed reactions are used for their own unique purposes. A macrocosmic example of acid catalysis is the reaction and conversion of the hydrocarbon atoms found in petroleum to gasoline, and the creation of silicone. An example of a grand base ­ catalyzed reaction is the creation and conversion of several compounds and molecules used in the creation of foam sponges. The main reasoning behind this investigation is to discover how well the catalase enzyme in yeast can break down hydrogen peroxide after different amounts of acids and bases have been added onto it. For this experiment, my hypothesis is that the more acidic or the more basic the concoction made in the different cups is, the more bubbles will be made and the higher they will get. Procedure Materials The materials you will need for this experiment include: 5 clear glass containers of equal size (beakers or test tubes are ideal) Permanent marker Tape 5 clean spoons Distilled water Small clear cup/glass Baking soda Set of measuring teaspoons Measuring cup Hydrogen peroxide Dry yeast Ruler Lemon juice Variables         Ã‚   1. The rlcpcndent-ormanipulated variable in this experiment is the amount of lemon juice or baking soda poured into the different containers and thus, the acidity or basicity in each container. 2. The iodepor responding variable in this experiment is the height and amount of bubbles formed as a result of the chemical reaction. 3.   The controlled variable or the variable held constant in this experiment is the amount of yeast and the amount of hydrogen peroxide put in each container and the containers themselves. StepbyStep Directions 1. Label the containers: 1- Control, 2- Low Acid, 3- High Acid, 4- Low Base, and 5-High Base. 2. Put a spoon in each of the containers, and make sure to never move a spoon from one container to the other. 3. Add two teaspoons of distilled water to container 1- Control. 4. Stir in 1 4 cup of hydrogen peroxide to container 1-Control. 5. Stir in 1 teaspoon of yeast to container 1- Control. 6. Place the ruler alongside the container, and record the highest height the bubbles reach 7.Of the other containers, record predictions first, and actual results after on a chart. 8.   To create the acidic containers, add one teaspoon oflemonjuice to container 2- Low Acid and two teaspoons oflemonjuice to container 3-High Acid. 9. Add one teaspoon of distilled water to container 2- Low Acid so it is the same volume as con iner 3. 1O.Stir in V4 cup of hydrogen peroxide to containers 2 and 3. ll.Add 1 teaspoon yeast to both container 2 and 3. Stir and observe. 12.Record the maximum height ofthe yeast bubbles. 13.To create the basic containers, add one teaspoon ofthe baking soda solution to container 4- Low Base and two teaspoons of the baking soda solution to container 5- High Base. 14.Add one teaspoon of distilled water to container 4- Low Base so it has the same volume as container 5. 15.Stir in V4 cup ofhydrogen peroxide to containers 4 and 5. 16.Add 1 8 teaspoon of yeast to both container 4 and 5. Stir and observe 17.Record the maximum height ofthe yeast bubbles. (Compare your predictions with your actual observations) Results There were a plethora of things to be discovered from this otherwise simple experiment. The very flrst thing that you have to be aware of to do this experiment is that there will always be a change to an altered chemical reaction, no matter how small the alteration or the result. The result of each and every chemical reaction wasnt very different, but it was enough so that each showed a noticeable change. The temperature for each experiment I conducted stayed at approximately the same level throughout. The original height of the mixture was approximately 1 inch before adding the yeast. I performed three separate trials for each chemical reaction. The results were approximately the same for every trial I conducted of the different concoctions. The initial height of all the concoctions prior to adding yeast was approximately I inch. The constant reaction worked at the most accelerated rate, thus causing more bubbles to form on the mixtures surface. This occurred because of the fact that the enzyme Catalase works best at around pH 7, and this mixture was very near to the neutral pH. The foamy bubbles made the height of the concoction reach approximately 1.5 inches in an average whiskey glass. The bubbles reached their maximum height at a slow rate. This was true for a majority of the reactions. Control Reaction   Ã‚   The acidic reactions reacted in a very similar way to each other. The low-acid reaction acted in a very similar way to the control reaction in every single trial I conducted. The bubbles in this reaction reached a slightly lower height than that of the control reaction; approximately 1.2 inches. The pH of this composition was slightly more acidic; about a 6 or 5 on the pH scale. The pH being lower is what caused the bubbles to perform in a more decelerated rate. The high-acid reaction also performed at a lesser magnitude than the control reaction. The height of the bubbles reached a height of slightly more than 1 inch. Due to the fact that the high-acid reaction had a lower pH and strayed further from the desired neutral status, it performed the worst of all the reactions thus far. However, this reaction reached its maximum height in a shorter amount of time. Low-Acid  Reaction  High-AcidReaction The low-base mixture reacted in approximately the same way as the low-acid mixture. This is because the two mixtures were the same amount of pH away from the desired neutral pH. This concoction was at a pH of roughly 9 or 10. The height ofthis mixture was approximately 1.2 inches. Even though the amount of acid or base added to the mixture was the same, the one teaspoon of baking soda raised the pH more than the one teaspoon of lemon juice lowered the pH because the baking soda is a powder. It being a powder allows for the individual molecules of the substance to spread around the mixture more than the tangy lemon juice could. The high-base mixture reacted in a very similar way to the high-acid mixture. Again, this was because they  were the same amount away from a neutral pH. The pH of the high-base concoction was a pH of approximately 11 or 12. The maximum height of this mixture reached slightly more than 1 inch. This blend also reached its maximum height in a shorter amount of time than the others. Low-Base  Reaction  High-Base  Reaction Due to the fact that the different reactions reacted in quite a similar way to one another, I decided to conduct an additional experiment. This one consisted of one teaspoon of lemon juice and one teaspoon of baking soda in the beginning. This was to discover if a mixture of the two would accelerate or decelerate the Catalase reaction. I had previous knowledge that a mixture of baking soda and lemon juice resulted in a foamy liquid that helped with indigestion and to fight off minor cancer cells, so I put it to the test with the catalytic enzyme. This concoction reacted in a way like no other. The maximum height of the reaction was approximately 5 inches. This reaction also reached its maximum height quicker than any other reaction. The initial foam of the mixture of the acid and the base caused the yeast bubbles to be larger and whiter in color in comparison to the other reactions. Estimated  Height  of  Yeast  Bubbles Actual  Height  of  Yeast  Bubbles Control 2in. 1.5 in. Low-Acid 3 in. 1.3 in. High-Acid 4in. 1.1in. Low-Base 3.3 in. 1.35 in. High-Base 4.4in. 1.15 in. Combination 5 in. 2.5 in. Conclusion The results proved my hypothesis completely incorrect. I believed that the further away from neutral the concoctions got, the more accelerated the reaction would be. However, the complete opposite to what I believed turned out to be true. I was very surprised to see that every  planned reaction gave approximately the same results. That was why I decided to conduct an  experiment with usually counteracting substances; the acid and the ba::}if I were to do this  experiment again, I would use larger amounts in order to get larger and more visible results. The most plausible explanation of the yeast reaction is that the bubbles formed because the hydrogen and oxide atoms collided with the Catalase in the yeast and then bounced away. Due to the fact that the molecules bounced apart, a larger microscopic gap formed between the atoms. The way us humans see this minuscule separation is in the form of the Catalase bubbles. The way that this reaction could help us in our everyday lives i s actually quite simple. Catalase is found in a majority of human bodies; especially in the liver. What Catalase does in the human body is that  if there is more of it in the liver, your hair will gray at a slower rate or not at all, and if there is not a lot of Catalase in your liver, then your hair will grow at an exponential rate. Due to the fact that Catalase is found in one of our crucial organs, doctors and scientists have conducted  experiments to try and manipulate the enzyme in order to treat ailments in that region of the bodese experiments were simply on a microcosmic scale, which did not allow them to  perform in such a notable and appreciable way. However, on a larger scale, this type of catalysis would be truly helpful in our everyday needs. Bibliography Gray, Theodore. Molecules:TheElementsandtheArchitectureofEverything.New York City: Black Dog Leventhal, 2014. Print. Touchette, Betty. (2014, May 01). AcidBaseCatalysis. /www.education.com/science-fair/article/acids-bases-affect-enzyme-action/> Ruiz, Brianna. (2015, September 10). AcidandBaseCatalysis. Goodsell, David. (2004, September). PDB101:Catalase. 15

Saturday, July 20, 2019

Searching for the Skeletons in the Closet: Did Richard III Have his Nep

Did Richard III Have His Nephews Killed? The reign of Richard III is something of a paradox. His rule was brief and he lost his crown to a usurper, allowing the House of York to die with him. Yet few English kings have been the subject of such continuous debate, and none have spawned such fervent denigration, or such enthusiastic support. Much of the debate fuelling pro- and anti-Richardians has been whether or not Richard had his two young nephews, Edward V and Richard of York, murdered. Unfortunately to date it has been a debate mired in speculation. Writes V. B. Lamb: 'No conclusive proof has ever come to light which could provide a solution that did not rest solely in speculation. The possibilities are endless, but all remain at best quite unsupported theories' (89). Indeed, the possibilities have seemed endless. There have been myriad theories, ranging from the plausible to the completely inane. People commenting on the matter range from Sir Thomas More to William Shakespeare to the current Duke of Gloucester. Some of these theories will be discussed in this paper. I will draw on ideas both contemporaneous and current, pro and con, along with my own insights, in an attempt to engage the sources in conversation and hopefully provide the reader with a more clear and accurate idea of Richard III and his actions (or lack thereof). Some questions are important to keep in mind when assessing the culpability of Richard. Does he seem a man capable of such a heinous act as infanticide, and his own nephews at that? Assuming he does, did the political situation make it prudent for him to do so? Or were there others who stood to gain more by their deaths? Before these questions can be answered, some context is needed. The Engl... ...ot exist; he is therefore an innocent man. Bibliography Gillingham, John. "Introduction: Interpreting Richard III." Richard III: A Medieval Kingship. Ed. John Gillingham. London: Collins and Brown Ltd, 1993. Hammond, P.W. "The Reputation of Richard III." Richard III: A Medieval Kingship. Ed. John Gillingham. London: Collins and Brown Ltd, 1993. Hammond, P.W. and Sutton, Anne F. Richard III: The Road to Bosworth Field. London: Constable and Company Ltd, 1985. Horrox, Rosemary. Richard III: A Study of Service. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989. Lamb, V.B. The Betrayal of Richard III: An Introduction to the Controversy. Revised Ed. Stroud: Alan Sutton Publishing Ltd, 1990. Richmond, Colin. "1483: The Year of Decision (or Taking the Throne)." Richard III: A Medieval Kingship. Ed. John Gillingham. London: Collins and Brown Ltd, 1993.

Friday, July 19, 2019

Rosenbergs Use of Words to Communicate Themes in his Poem :: The Wasps Nest Poetry Poems Essays

Rosenberg's Use of Words to Communicate Themes in his Poem The Wasp’s Nest Conceptualize a world full of people that isolate and alienate you-a place where you don’t count or make a difference. This is one of the major concerns in the Wasp’s Nest. Rosenberg appeals to our intellect utilizing technical literary ingredients to spice up and flavour the poem. My project is an analysis of his use of words and phrases to communicate themes in his poem and to see how the poem has been made memorable. To me, the poem on its own is a metaphor portraying life and its elements of uncertainty and others. In line 1’’ Two aerial tigers†¦Ã¢â‚¬â„¢Ã¢â‚¬â„¢, the wasps are being referred to as ‘’aerial tigers’’ because they do all their activities in the air (aerial). They are referred to as ‘’tigers’ for two reasons. The main one being that they are ragingly ferocious and much undomesticated. The second one is describes their physical outward appearance as they are yellow with black stripes just like the tiger. The use of language here is very descriptive and this line being a metaphor aids the picture to be conceived on the mental canvas. Line 1 is memorable because it is quite unique the way one can find such descriptive to perfectly describe the scenario. â€Å"Striped in ebony and gold†¦Ã¢â‚¬â„¢Ã¢â‚¬â„¢. The use of sophisticated and exclusive adjectives which are (‘ebony’ and ‘gold’) to illustrate the wasp’s appearance shows how fascinated and beguiled Rosenberg is by the wasps. This line contributes to the memorability of the poem. This is through the adoption of classy words to leave the words echoing in our minds and it is savoured and relished by the reader. Line 3-5 describes the state in which the wasps are in and how they went about their preparation of their home. Here, we assume that the two wasps are of the opposite sex thus, probably married or are living their lives together. Therefore, another rational assumption is that these two wasps are building a home, an investment that they can share together and reside within. These lines are made memorable because they unfailingly apply and relate to our daily lives. Line 7-9 depicts how worthless and valueless this ‘’huge’’ investment is to Rosenberg or the persona and then again, I find these lines ringing in my head because it is indeed an example of life’s bad sides- when one takes their time to put something together and he worships it with every fibre of his being but before others, it is insignificant. Line 10-14, is about how the persona has endeavored and made an attempt to exonerate and get rid of the wasps.

Essay --

The irony of Story of An Hour begins with her finding out that her husband â€Å"died.† Everything starts to go downhill from there. Mrs. Millard the main character dies from heart disease, she is alive when she discovers that her husband never died from the train accident. Richard, Mr. Millard best friend breaks the news to Josephine Mrs. Millard sister. In the book it explains how Richard was at the newspaper office when he waited for the telegram to see if Brently Millard name was on the killed list. He was on the list the irony of the news is that Richard was in fact wrong, Mr. Millard is actually alive. Little did he know that Mrs. Millard would eventually find out and go through her stages of letting go of the past. When she finds out she is heartbroken because she finally thought she was free from her husband. Even though we don’t know for sure if her husband abused her but in the book she whispers â€Å"free,free,free† After she realizes she is free from her past and she can start fresh an forget everything about it. When Mrs. Millard is whispering to herself about being free she is ...

Thursday, July 18, 2019

Harshness of the time Essay

‘Of Mice and Men’ has been described as a novel about the harshness of the time. What justifications can you find for this? ‘Of Mice and Men’ is set in 1930’s America, an extremely prejudiced area of history. It is a time that criticises and excludes women, black people, disabled people and old people, deeming them useless within a utilitarian society. In the novel, Steinbeck represents the harsh prejudices, poverty and injustice with the life of itinerant workers, a microcosm of American society at this time. Firstly, the way in which Steinbeck describes the bunkhouse of the ranch immediately seems to suggest a harsh environment in which people are forced to live and work in: â€Å"†¦ the walls were whitewashed and the floor unpainted†¦ a solid door with a wooden latch†¦ † This description of the ranch suggests a purely utilitarian approach to life, showing a living area with no aesthetic appeal whatsoever. It shows no dignity towards the workers, and what’s more they don’t complain about its lack of appeal. This gives the impression that ranch workers live with no inspiration, seemingly being forced to live a life purely to survive it rather than enjoy it. The â€Å"door with a wooden latch† and general unloved atmosphere gives a prison-like sense to the bunkhouse, conveying a sense of loneliness and isolation. This lack of communication and friendship could be interpreted as an extremely harsh thing to deal with. In addition to this, the severe racism portrayed by Steinbeck through the character Crooks is just one example of the harsh prejudice that disadvantaged people face in this novel: â€Å"†¦ he [the boss] give the stable buck hell, too†¦ ya see the stable buck’s a nigger. † Crooks is constantly referred to as â€Å"a nigger†, and characters in the novel react to this as a completely normal comment to make, which we see when George reacts to this name with â€Å"Nigger, huh? â€Å". The fact that the ranch is racially segregated is quite surprising for numerous reasons. The novel is set in the West where racism was considered to be less intense, as well as the fact that Steinbeck conveys the ‘American dream’ as a theme in the novel, suggesting that anyone can make it in America and â€Å"live off the fatta the land†. However it is clear that black people are restricted from succeeding here and this irony merely emphasises the harshness of reality for black people during this period in time. In addition to this, the prejudices that women face present the times the novel is set in to be extremely harsh, often through Curley’s wife: â€Å"She put her hands behind her back and leaned against the door frame so that her body was thrown forward† The novel does not even dignify Curley’s wife with a name, as she is merely referred to as the wife of Curley or simply just â€Å"a tart†, which suggests that they live in a somewhat patriarchal society where women are seen as purely sex objects. This would suggest that women are not allowed to aspire to better things, and live their lives as commodities of men. Another problem that they face is the fact that the only power they can achieve is through their sexuality, but if they choose to expose this, they are criticised for being promiscuous, emphasising the harshness they have to cope with. Furthermore, Whit’s story of â€Å"Bill Tenner† who got his letter put into a magazine is one of great interest to the ranch-workers, especially Whit, which tells us something about their dreams and aspirations: â€Å"Bill Tenner? Worked here about three months ago†¦ That’s the guy! Here, Steinbeck portrays a certain excitement within Whit, which we see from the exclamation â€Å"That’s the guy! † and this has arisen purely from the fact that one man who he barely knew (as ranch-workers moved from place to place often) had accomplished something that he had dreamed of. This shows a huge lack of ambition among the workers, from the fact that the only excitement for these workers has come from a mere acquaintance of Whit’s name being printed in a â€Å"pulp magazine†, which was a piece of inexpensive fiction. This is not only quite pathetic, but also extremely saddening to see grown men become energised by something so seemingly trivial. Although people living in this time period and circumstances would not necessarily see this as harsh, looking at it from today’s perspective, in contrast it most definitely seems like an austere environment. In conclusion, the harsh living conditions, inhibitions and prejudices that the majority of the disadvantaged ranch-workers must live with have a clear correlation to the state of American society during The Great Depression of the 1930’s. Steinbeck seems to have created a character for each type of harshness that was experienced, for example, Curley’s wife corresponds to sexism, and Candy corresponds to old and disabled people, all of which creates an accurate impression of the harshness of the times that ‘Of Mice and Men’ is set in.

Wednesday, July 17, 2019

Early Childhood Intervention Services on Social Performance Essay

Based on numerous searches, surveys, and studies conducted newly, the un epochly intensive give-and-take method showed a signifi evictt burden for babyren having autism. The behavioural approach as hitch on preschoolers with the said disarray showed an favorable short- and long- line effect (Anderson, A very, DiPietro, Edwards, & Christian, 1987 Fenske, Zalenski, Krantz, & McClannahan, 1985 McEachin, Smith, & OI, 1993).It was said that pull up stakess showed a partial to n ahead of time complete recovery from symptoms of autism where the ab start foretasteful and po driveive result suggests a n primordial 50% recovery through intensive an opposite(prenominal)(a) hindrance (Handleman, Harris, Celiberti, Lilleheht, & Tomchek, 1991 Hoyson, 1984 Lord & Schopler, 1989 Lovaas, 1987 Sheinkopf & Siegel, 1998). The reported utility was base on the reveal go ins from standardized pre- take test tally and at times, was ground on behavioural margeinations (Handleman, H arris, Celiberti, Lilleheht, & Tomchek, 1991 Hoyson, 1984 Lord & Schopler, 1989 Lovaas, 1987 Sheinkopf & Siegel, 1998).Also, in contrast to the front approximations that implied l integrity(prenominal) 50% of all tykeren pick up a chance to learn to victimisation up operative font, much recent approximations as nominate from participating infantren below betimes hindrance showed at least(prenominal) 85% to 90% of these sisterren raise expend the regional speech if pr correcttive set voltaic piles in the preschool st geezerhood (Koegel, 2000).The intricacy in name of mutual social interactions shamd in autism disorders paved way to the need of beforehand(predicate) identification of this disorder to tykeren beca work protrude of the signifi set upt advant ripens that resulted if weeish interpellation is per skeletal frameed. It is also this same mingled nature on the social shoot a line of autism that led to formulation of archean discourse compute r programs. hardly to date, thither be hardly a(prenominal) preventive programs that focus on the enhancement of social interactions to peer assemblages and siblings since or so programs hypothecate were on boor-adult interactions (Koegel, Koegel, & Frea, 2001). in that location is also the short let expiry of these programs on the kids true functioning in his or her natural surround much(prenominal) as social and expressional improvements beca expend closely emergences atomic go 18 based on the alterations of the babes IQ s incumbrances and post- interpolation assignments (Koegel, Koegel, & Smith, 1997). It was also famed that a a a few(prenominal)(prenominal)(prenominal) judging studies were conducted on the consequences or results of early intervention programs on sick boorren less than threesome years of age since the k straightawayledge of possible action for practitioners to diagnose autism anterior to age three was hardly recent.CHAPTER 1 The Historical Viewpoint behind archean churlhood intervention Programs The concept that point using can be manipulated during the early teeny-weeny fryhood period necessitates the need for early interference or intervention of autism since this imposes a spaciouser chance of success and the casualty of a long-term make doment existence prevented and reduced (Ornitz, 1973). The teachings in colloquy, social learning, and self- jock skills from the family, school, community, peers, and group can further help sick fryren on their social and emotional revealment.In an early intervention program, the factors being evaluated that sire indicator if improvement pass offred be age and IQ. in that location ar studies showing that the incidence of a higher IQ and an introductory age at the buy the farm of intervention is a imperative predictor of ameliorate chances of recovery and better military issues (Gabriel, Hill, Pierce, Rogers, & Wehner, 2001 Handleman, Harris, Celiberti, Lilleheht, & Tomchek, 1991).Recently, the recognized predictor of intervention outcome in the lyric and peer aspect is the stage of the nipper with autism on peer social escape aft(prenominal) under intervention program for half dozen months (Ingersoll, Schreibman, & Stahmer, 2001). Peer social evasion is set forth as the frequency of the childs avoidance near peers. both(prenominal)(prenominal) studies showed a noteworthy connection of the childs drug abuse of joint help appearances and later communicatory diction improvement (Mundy, Sigman, & Kasari, 1990).These joint attention looks include heart gaze alternation and pointing. There is also a study demonstrating that child initiations anticipate very high favorable intervention outcomes (Koegel, Koegel, Shoshan, & McNerney, 1999). Child initiations argon specify as the start of a new interaction or changing where the interaction is headed for. These three characteristics viz. peer avoidance, joint atte ntion, and initiations be described in nature as highly analogous.They atomic number 18 also called as intervention tar specify behaviors. Before early intervention or treatment operate be done, a suitable and thorough valuation of the child with autism should be conducted to identify the attach approach to conduct (Shackelford, 2002). First, this assessment should be performed by a trained supply to work on a equal to(predicate) methods and procedures to be followed. Secondly, it should be based on informed clinical opinion from skillful aesculapian professional for the said specialization.And lastly, in that location should be a re descry of the germane(predicate) records that would be applicable in evaluating the childs current wellness and medical history and childs take aim of functioning on the critical development argonas such as cognitive, sensible (including trance and hearing, dialogue, social or emotional, and adaptive aspects (Shackelford, 2002). As d efined, the term early intervention all-inclusively speaking refers to program options for the child with autism at six years of age and below ( untimely interpolation, 2007).There be both(prenominal) described and formulated diverse early intervention options featureisedally center-based programs for children with an array of developmental delays, conventional and expert preschool programs, center-based programs specializing in Autism Spectrum b new(prenominal)wise (ASD), home-based programs on a original therapy approach, specialized therapies from detail clinics, agencies that organize the early intervention military unit to visit the childs home on a unbendable or semi- unbendable basis or outreach serve, and programs that atomic number 18 investigated and organized with p atomic number 18nts ( previous(predicate) intercession, 2007).There ar many divergent types of serve offered under the early intervention program. These be family birth servicings, f unded specialiser programs, non-funded specialist programs, item therapies, alternative therapies, and behavioural assistance services. umteen family aver services be lendable ( early on incumbrance, 2007). Example is the former(a) Childhood Intervention serve from the surgical incision of Human Services that funds erect programs like ahead of time Choices and Making a Difference for a successful implementation of these programs.The local councils can also require this support service as they ar funded too to bequeath such ( proterozoic Intervention, 2007). The support and instruction service under family support services can help families through straightaway guidance, aware and emotional support, and provision of necessary instruction regarding autism through library, information packages and tip sheets, and promulgated magazines ( earlier Intervention, 2007). The funded specialist programs are funded under the Department of Human Services tendencyly for children with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) (Early Intervention, 2007).These are center-based programs and outreach programs (Early Intervention, 2007). But still, funding is greatly limited and these funded programs are alone available to offer services just a not so many hours per week. Outreach programs are where trained personnel visit the patient in his or her home, or are community based services such as child portion out or preschool for ill children. The non-funded specialist programs are programs that do not contact funding from the federal official disposal (Early Intervention, 2007). Example of this is the Applied style Analysis (ABA).The ABA is a home-based therapy that is structured in pattern to the work of Dr. Ivar Lovaas (Early Intervention, 2007). The format of this program is one-to-one instruction, and support and streng whenceing. But an ABA trained teacher or psychologist is the only one certified to develop and supervise the program. On the other hand, only the p arent and/or trained ABA therapists can carry out the teaching conferences. It is cognise that ABA program outcomes are positive only still, as usual, the outcomes vary from child to child.The only possible disadvantages being seen are on the financial and time viewpoints, that is, it is expensive and not all families can afford it (Early Intervention, 2007). Another type of service for early intervention is the conduction of specific therapies. These trained therapists are those already skillful in executing therapies in analogy to autism (Early Intervention, 2007). These are the psychologists, speech therapists, occupational therapists, early intervention teachers, physiotherapists, harmony therapists, and dance and proceeding therapists.Most of these therapists are in private practice and give explicit professional fees. Some families are able to secure funding from support programs date others confine to pay it on their own. In year 2006, the federal government tried to include mental health conditions in Medicare insurances to help families to lessen expenditures if therapy is the proper approach to the autism condition of the child (Early Intervention, 2007). The identified alternative therapies are those treatments or approaches that showed constant positive outcomes (Early Intervention, 2007).These are usually the cultureally and/or behaviorally based programs (Early Intervention, 2007). These programs are intensive, intend, ordered, and long-standing. There is no second approach. The behavioral assistance programs are to a greater extent(prenominal) often than not where parents ask for help (Early Intervention, 2007). In view thitherof, Gateways Support Services developed an interactional website with a colossal data bound as guidance for these parents (Early Intervention, 2007). Researchers and educators acquit debated the question of how discourse destructions and objectives for children with autism and colligate disabilities s hould be derived.The perspective espouse by conventional behavioral programs has been to establish remnants and objectives a priori (Lovaas, 1987). behavioral distinguishable- struggle programs begin with general compliance cooking to get a child to sit in a chair, look at the clinician, and imitate nonverbal behavior in answer to verbal commands. Speech is taught as a verbal behavior, and objectives are targeted outgrowth with verbal exaggeration, following one- feeling commands, heart-to-heart discrimination of body parts, objects, person call and pictures, and expressive labeling in solvent to questions.Later, speech parley objectives include prepositions, pronouns, same or diametric and yes or no. More modern behavioral approaches establish developed name and addresss for outcomes from a functional assessment. Goals and objectives are individualized, based on a childs repertoire of communicatory behaviors, teaching functional equivalents of contend behavior, an d addressing the childs individual needs. The functional emphasis focuses on goals that affect a childs access to choices of activities in which to participate, opportunities for social interaction, and community orbits (Brown, 2006).Contemporary behavioral programs emphasize teaching communication skills so that greater access is cand to a renewal of people, places and events, on that pointby enhancing the quality of life of children with autistic spectrum disorders. The perspective espouse by developmentally oriented approaches has been to focus on the communicative gist of behaviors and to target goals and objectives that enhance a childs communicative competence by moving the child along a developmental progression (Ornitz, 1973).Contemporary developmentalists begin with social-communicative goals, including gaze to regulate interaction, sharing positive affect, communicative functions, and gestural communication. Language goals are mapped onto social communication skills a nd are point by a developmental poser (Koegel, Koegel, & Frea, 2001). developmental perspective usually guides the goal-setting in an augmentative and alternative communication (AAC) intervention.Beukelman and Mirenda (1998) republic that the goals of an AAC intervention are to assist individuals with mischievous communication disorders to become communicatively competent in the present, with the view toward meeting their future communication needs (Lovaas, 1987). One major purpose of communication assessment is to document potpourri as an outcome nib of treatment. However, most formal or standardized linguistic process assessment measures focus primarily on language form and rely on elicited responses.Because language impairments associated with autism are most apparent in social-communicative or virtual(a) aspects of language, formal assessment instruments can supply information about only a limited number of aspects of communication for children with autism (Shackelford , 2002). perfunctory language measures are especially in immaculate in measuring nonverbal aspects of communication and on that pointfore are not sufficient, in particular for low-functioning children with autism. In many situations, the tests used for pre- and post-assessment are diverse, due to the childs increase age, making interpretation of results difficult.Another major purpose of assessment is to provide information for procreational planning that can be filmly translated into goals, strategies, and outcome measures for communication enhancement. many(prenominal) communication abilities let in been identified as important to assess for children with autism like use of eye gaze and facial expression for social referencing and to regulate interaction, range of communicative functions expressed, rate of communicating, use of gestures and vocal/verbalizations, use of repair strategies, understanding of conventional contents, and capacity to engage in conversation (S hackelford, 2002).It is pointed out that communicative abilities of children with autism should be documented in natural communicative exchanges, with a childs symbolic abilities serving as a developmental frame of quote (Mundy, Sigman, & Kasari, 1990). To supplement formal measures, the systematic use of informal procedures to assess language and communication is needed. In order to gather an accurate picture of the communication and symbolic abilities of children with autism, a combination of assessment strategies has been recommended that includes interviewing significant others (i. e., parents, teachers) and spy in everyday situations to find out how a child communicates in the home, crystallizeroom, and other daily settings (Mundy, Sigman, & Kasari, 1990). Although at that place is consensus on the sizeableness of enhancing communication abilities for children with autism, intervention approaches vary greatly, and some even appear to be diametrically opposed (Koegel, 2000) . The methodological rigor in communication intervention studies in cost of internal and external validity and measures of stimulus induction has been stronger than in many other areas of autism intervention studies.Nevertheless, there become been relatively few prospective studies with controls for maturation, expectancy, or experimenter artifacts. The strongest studies in equipment casualty of internal validity shoot been triplex baseline, ABAB, or similar designs that ready include controls for blindness of evaluations (Koegel, 2000). There have been nigh no studies with random assignment, although about 70 percent of the studies included well-defined cohorts of adequate sample size or riposte across three or more subjects in single subject designs.A developed proportion of communication interventions have also included some assessment of generalization, though most often not in a natural setting (Koegel, 2000). In order to examine the critical elements of treatment programs that affect the speech, language, and communication skills of children with autism. It is then useful to characterize the officious ingredients of treatment approaches along a continuumfrom traditional, clear-cut trial approaches to more contemporary behavioral approaches that used naturalistic language teaching techniques to developmentally oriented approaches (Koegel, 2000).The earliest research efforts at teaching speech and language to children with autism used massed discrete trial methods to teach verbal behavior by building labeling phraseology and simple sentences. Lovaas (1987) provided the most detailed floor of the procedures for language training using discrete trial approaches. Outcomes of discrete trial approaches have included improvements in IQ scores, which are correlated with language skills, and improvements in communication domains of broader measures, such as the Vineland Adaptive way Scales (McEachin, Smith, & OI, 1993).A limitation of a discrete trial approach in language acquisition is the lack of spontaneity and generalization. Lovaas (1987) tell that the training regimeits use of paranormal reinforcers, and the like may have been answerable for producing the very situation-specific, restricted verbal outfit which we observed in many of our children. In a review of research on discrete trial approaches, Koegel (2000) noted that not only did language fail to be exhibited or generalize to other environss, that most behaviors taught in this highly controlled environment also failed to generalize.There is now a large body of semiempirical support for more contemporary behavioral approaches using naturalistic teaching methods that license efficacy for teaching not only speech and language, but also communication. concord to Koegel 2000, there are many approaches that could be considered that include natural language paradigms (Koegel et al. , 1987), parenthetic teaching (Hart, 1985 McGee et al. , 1985 McGee et al. , 1999), time delay and environs intervention (Charlop et al., 1985 Charlop and Trasowech, 1991 Hwang and Hughes, 2000 Kaiser, 1993 Kaiser et al. , 1992), and pivotal response training (Koegel, 1995 Koegel et al. , 1998). These approaches use systematic teaching trials that have some(prenominal) common active ingredients they are initiated by the child and focus on the childs interest they are interspersed and embedded in the natural environment and they use natural reinforcers that follow what the child is trying to communicate.Only a few studies, all using single-subject designs, have compared traditional discrete trial with naturalistic behavioral approaches. These studies have reported that naturalistic approaches are more hard-hitting at strikeing(p) to generalization of language gains to natural contexts (Koegel 2000). There are numerous intervention approaches based on a developmental framework. maculation there are many different developmental programs, a common birt h of developmental approaches is that they are child-directed.The environment is position to provide opportunities for communication, the child initiates the interaction or teaching episode, and the teacher or communicative partner follows the childs lead by being responsive to the childs communicative intentions, and imitating or expanding the childs behavior. Although the empirical support for developmental approaches is more limited than for behavioral approaches, there are several treatment studies that provide empirical support for language outcomes using specific strategies built on a developmental approach providing the largest cuticle review.Developmental approaches share many common active ingredients with contemporary naturalistic behavioral approaches and are compatible along most dimensions. some(prenominal) researches had been done on the effectiveness of early intervention because a proper pick of goal when dealing the autistic spectrum disorder should be done sinc e the disorder is characterized of many complexities that treating it also involves critical selection of approach. In general, it was shown that researches on these intervention programs had focused on the effectiveness of the programs and not the appropriateness of different goals.For example is knowing a certain intervention program to be effective but the parent and child had to give out across town once a week for the said program or the child is taken out from naval division in order to be set by his therapist. Educational objectives moldinessiness be based on specific behaviors targeted for planned interventions. However, one of the questions that arises repeatedly, both on a theoretical and on a clinical basis, is how specific a link has to be between a long-term goal and a behavior targeted for intervention.Some targeted behaviors, such as toilet training or acquisition of functional spoken language, provide im halfwayly discernible practical benefits for a child and hi s or her family. However, in many other cases, both in regular education and specialized early intervention, the link up between the objectives used to structure what a child is taught and the childs ultimate(prenominal) independent, socially responsible functioning are much less obvious. This is particularly the case for preschool children, for whom play and manipulation of toys (e. g. , matching, stacking of blocks) are primordial methods of learning and relating to other children.Often, behaviors targeted in education or therapy are not of immediate practical value but are addressed because of presumed links to overall educational goals. The structuring of activities in which a child can succeed and feel successful is an inseparable part of special education. Sometimes the behavior is one component of a serial publication of actions that comprise an important achievement. Breaking down a series of actions into components can help learning. Thus, a preschool child may be taug ht to hold a piece of reputation down with one hand while scribbling with another.This action is a first step in a series of tasks knowing to help the child draw and lastly write. Other behaviors, or often homees of behaviors, have been described as pivotal behaviors in the sense that their acquisition allows a child to learn many other skills more efficiently (Koegel, Koegel, Shoshan, & McNerney, 1999). Schreibman and the Koegels and their colleagues have proposed a specific treatment program for children with autism pivotal response treatment. It includes teaching children to respond to natural reinforcers and ten-fold cues, as well as other pivotal responses.These are hear skills that allow better access to social information. The sentiment of pivotal skills to be targeted as goals may also hold for a broad range of behaviors such as imitation (Stone, 1997 Rogers and Pennington, 1991), maintaining proximity to peers (Hanson and Odom, 1999), and learning to delay enjoyment (understanding first do this, then you get to do that). Longitudinal research has found that early joint attention, symbolic play, and unfastened language are predictors of long-term outcome (Siller and Sigman, 2002).Although the research to date has been primarily correlational, one inference has been that if interventions succeed in modifying these key behaviors, more general improvements go away occur as well (Kasari, 2000). Another explanation is that these behaviors are early indicators of the childs potential developmental trajectory. Sometimes goals for treatment and education involve attempting to limit and treat the effects of one aspect of autism, with the boldness that such a treatment go forth allow a child to function more competently in a range of activities.For example, a number of different treatment programs emphasize treating the sensory abnormalities of autism, with the synthesis that this will facilitate a childs acquisition of communication or social skil ls (e. g. , auditory integration sensory integration). For many interventions, supporting these links through research has been difficult. There is little recite to support identifiable links between general treatment of a class of behaviors (e. g. , sensory dysfunction) and improvements in another class of behaviors (e. g., social skills), especially when the treatment is carried out in a different context from that in which the targeted behaviors are expected to appear. However, there are somewhat different examples in other areas of education and medicine in which interventions have broad effects on behavior. One example is the effect of quick exercise on general behavior in autism (Koegel, Koegel, Shoshan, & McNerney, 1999). In addition, both desensitisation and targeted exercise in sports medicine and physical therapy often involve working from interventions carried out in one context to generalization to more natural circumstances.Yet, in both of these cases, the shifting f rom therapeutic to real-life contexts is planned explicitly to occur within a relatively brief period of time. At this time, there is no scientific evidence of this frame of link between specifically-targeted therapies and general improvements in autism outside the targeted areas. Until information about such links becomes available, this lack of findings is relevant to goals, because it suggests that educational objectives should be tied to specific, real-life contexts and behaviors with immediate meaning to the child.Because the range of outcomes for children with autistic spectrum disorders is so broad, the possibility of relatively normal functioning in later childhood and adulthood offers hope to many parents of young children. Although recent writings has conveyed more modest claims, the possibility of lasting recovery from autism, in the sense of eventual earnment of language, social and cognitive skills at, or close to, age level, has been raised in association with a nu mber of educational and treatment programs (Ingersoll, Schreibman, & Stahmer, 2001).Natural history studies have revealed that there are a slight number of children who have symptoms of autism in early preschool years who do not have these symptoms in any obvious form in later years. Whether these improvements reflect developmental trajectories of very mildly affected children or changes in these trajectories (or more rapid movement along a trajectory) in response to treatment (Lovaas, 1987) is not known. However, as with other developmental disabilities, the core deficits in autism have generally been found to persist in some degree in most persons with autistic spectrum diagnoses.There is no research base explaining how recovery might come about or which behaviors might mediate general change in diagnosis or cognitive level (Ingersoll, Schreibman, & Stahmer, 2001). Although there is evidence that interventions lead to improvements and that some children shift specific diagnoses within the spectrum and change in severity of cognitive delay in the preschool years, there is not a simple, direct relationship between any particular current intervention and recovery from autism.Because there is endlessly room for hope, recovery will often be a goal for many children, but in foothold of planning services and programs, educational objectives must describe specific behaviors to be acquired or changed. Research on outcomes (or whether goals of independence and office have been attained) can be characterized by whether the goal of an intervention is broadly defined (e. g. , best outcome) or more narrowly defined (e. g. , increase vocabulary, increase peer-directed social behavior) whether the study design involves insurance coverage results in terms of individual or group changes and whether goals are short term (i.e. , to be achieved in a few weeks or months) or long term (i. e. , often several years). A large body of single-subject research has demonstrated tha t many children make substantial progress in response to specific intervention techniques in relatively short time periods (e. g. , several months). These gains occur in many specific areas, including social skills, language acquisition, nonverbal communication, and reductions of ambitious behaviors. Often the most rapid gains involve increasing the frequency of a behavior already in the childs repertoire, but not used as broadly as possible (e. g., increasing use of words) (Mundy, Sigman, & Kasari, 1990). In single-subject reports, changes in some form are almost always documented within weeks, if not days, after the intervention has begun. Studies over longer periods of time have documented that joint attention, early language skills, and imitation are core deficits that are the hallmarks of the disorder, and are predictive of longer-term outcome in language, adaptive behaviors, and academic skills. However, a causal relationship between improvements in these behaviors as a resul t of treatment and outcomes in other areas has not moreover been demonstrated.Many treatment studies report post intervention placement as an outcome measure (Mundy, Sigman, & Kasari, 1990). Successful participation in regular education classrooms is an important goal for some children with autism. However, its usefulness as an outcome measure is limited because placement may be related to many variables other than the characteristics of a child (such as preponderating trends in inclusion, availability of other services, and parents preferences).The most commonly reported outcome measure in group treatment studies of children with autism has been IQ scores (Lord & Schopler, 1989). Studies have reported substantial changes in IQ scores in a surprisingly large number of children in intervention studies and in longitudinal studies in which children received nonspecific interventions. However, even in the treatment studies that have shown the largest gains, childrens outcomes have bee n variable, with some children making great progress and others showing very small gains.Overall, while much evidence exists that education and treatment can help children attain short-term goals in targeted areas, gaps remain in addressing larger questions of the relationship between particular techniques and both general and specific changes (Lord & Schopler, 1989). The child with autism is also protected in the federal narrate law. These are the Public police 108-77 also called Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement coif of 2004 and Public Law 105-17 also called Individuals with Disabilities operate or IDEA of 1997.This mandates the major care provider to refer the child with autism and the family to an early intervention service. It was stated that every state has an early intervention program and must make it available to children from birth to three years of age, thus, autistic children are cover under this law. Examples of these program are behavioral methods , early developmental education, communication skills, occupational and physical therapy, and structured social play.